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History of early Islamic Tunisia
The History of early Islamic Tunisia opens with the arrival of the Arabs who brought their language and the religion of Islam, and its calendar.〔The Islamic calendar starts on July 16, 622 A.D., an estimated date for Muhammad's flight (Hijra) from Mecca to Medina. Years in this calendar are designated A.H. for ''Anno Hegira'' or the Hijri year. Since the Islamic calendar is strictly lunar, it runs about eleven and one-quarter days shorter than a solar year; hence calculation of dates between this lunar and a solar calendar are complicated. The calendar used in this article is a solar calendar, the traditional western calendar being the Gregorian, with the years dating from an approximate birth date of Jesus, designated either B.C. for ''Before Christ'', or A.D. for ''Anno Domini''. Alternatively the western calendar can be renamed to sanction a secular modernism, a nominal neutrality, or otherwise, the years being called B.C.E. and C.E., for ''Common Era''.〕 The Arab conquest followed strategy designed by the Umayyad Caliphate regarding its long-term conflict with the Byzantine Empire. The native Berbers eventually converted to Islam. They might have seen some similarities between themselves and the Arabs, in similar cognate culture, such as familiarity with a pastoral way of life. The first local Islamic ruling house, the Aghlabids, consisted primarily of rule by leading members of this Arab tribe. Fundamental elements of Islamic civilization were established. Although accepting Islam, many Berbers nonetheless resisted rule by the Arabs, establishing the Rustamid kingdom following the Kharijite revolt. Next in Ifriqiya (Tunisia) arose the Shia Fatimids, inspired by a few immigrants from the east yet consisting for the most part of Ifriqiya Berbers. The Fatimids later expanded their rule east, through conquest by Berber armies of Egypt, and established their caliphate there which came to include Syria and the Hejaz.〔See History of Tunisia preview for general Geography and Climate of Tunisia.〕
==Umayyad Caliphate in Ifriqiya==
After the initial period of the four rightly-guided caliphs (632-661) following the death of Muhammad (570-632), the ruling family of the Umayyads took firm control of the new Muslim state. The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) ruled from the city of Damascus; their first Caliph Mu'awiya (602-680, r.661-680) directed Muslim forces in their on-going military contest with the Byzantine Empire. Decades earlier the Byzantine provinces of Syria and Egypt had fallen to Islamic arms. Under Mu'awiya the Umayyad Caliphate could see how the foreign lands west of Egypt figured in the "geo-political" and military strategy of this struggle. Hence there began the decades-long undertaking resulting in the Umayyad conquest of North Africa.〔Charles-André Julien, ''Histoire de L'Afrique du Nord'' (Paris: Payot 1931, 1952), translated as ''History of North Africa. Tunisia Algeria Morocco. From the Arab Conquest to 1830'' (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1970; New York: Praeger 1970)at 1-3. Julien discusses the "scanty information" available on the Arab Conquest, basically four "traditions" about this "heroic and legendary age". These sources are: (1) Waqadi, at Medina and Bagdad, end of 8th century; (2) Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, at Cairo, 871; (3) an Andalusian (Spanish Moor) tradition of the 13th century; and, (4) a Tunisian tradition from Kairouan also of the 13th century. Later annalist, including Ibn Khaldun of Tunis (see below), seem to improve on these early traditions by applying their literary skill to coax out further details; not a generally approved or satisfactory method. Julian himself relies on the prior work of modern historians William Marçais and Émile Gautier.〕
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